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Accessible Design: Problems and Solutions
A Literature Review to Support the ITTATC Needs Assessment




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Section 3: Annotated Bibliography



  1. (2000, September 21). An open letter on accessibility from technology executives. Retrieved January 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.sun.com/access/general/clinton_letter.html

    This letter is addressed to President Clinton from several leaders in the high-technology industry (e.g., Sun Microsystems, Adobe, Microsoft). It pledges support for the president’s efforts to promote accessibility in information and communications products for two reasons: improving quality of life for individuals with disabilities and expanding commercial markets. The authors of the letter describe several ways in which their support will be manifested within their companies. Briefly, these ways include raising levels of awareness of accessibility issues, training staff and designers, developing accessibility guidelines, and including individuals with disabilities in the design and evaluation of products and services.


  2. ABLEDATA. (1994, November). Informed consumers guide to office equipment for people with visual disabilities. Retrieved December 15, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.abledata.com/Site_2/icg_off.htm

    This guide briefly presents several current assistive devices used by people with vision impairments in both office and leisure environments. The guide distinguishes between two types of vision impairments, low vision and blindness, and also notes that needs vary a great deal between individuals with vision impairments. Many of the assistive devices described are intended for use with a computer, and therefore have implications for the design of computers and software so that the devices may be used effectively. The guide also presents resources for funding and additional recommended reading.


  3. ABLEDATA. (1995, May). Fact Sheet on Computer Access. Retrieved December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.abledata.com/Site_2/compute.htm

    This guide briefly presents several current computer access options for people that have various disabilities. Included in the guide are options for input and control, and output and displays. The input and control alternatives essentially provide the user with an alternative other than the keyboard or mouse. The list of such devices includes modified keyboards, trackballs, touchscreens, and voice input. The list of output alternatives includes screen readers, Braille displays, closed-circuit capability, and Braille printers. The guide provides additional information for procuring these devices.


  4. ABLEDATA. (1999, February). Informed consumers guide to office equipment for people with hearing disabilities. Retrieved December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.abledata.com/Site_2/icg_hear.htm

    This guide describes the assistive technology currently available for deaf, hard of hearing, and deaf-blind individuals. The types of devices described are separated into three categories, based on the type of communication they are designed to enhance: face-to-face communication and enjoyment of television, telephone communication, and awareness of environmental sounds and situations. This guide notes that the different types of hearing loss require different types of assistive listening devices, all of which can enhance the quality of life for an individual (if they are selected properly), and all of which must be considered when designing accessible telecommunications technology. The guide also presents resources for funding and additional recommended reading.


  5. Access Board. Retrieved December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.access-board.gov/telecomm/bulletin.txt (Informal guidance on Section 255 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.)

    This web site explains Section 255 in very general terms. It describes the federal requirements for telecommunications technology, and summarizes the Access Board guidelines for making telecommunications products accessible. It also provides a definition for “telecommunications” and “telecommunications equipment”, and summarizes the telecommunications products covered by Section 255. Finally, it describes general ways in which telecommunications technology can be modified in order to accommodate assistive technology, when providing general access is not “readily achievable.”


  6. Access Board. (1998). Telecommunications Act accessibility guidelines. (n.d.). [Published in the Federal Register February 3, 1998]. Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.access-board.gov/telecomm/html/telfinal.htm

    Section 255 mandates that manufacturers of telecommunications equipment ensure accessibility, where readily achievable. This document provides comments and responses regarding a number of the Section 255 entries. Individuals are concerned about continued limited selection for them of accessible versus mainstream products. They fully support a product-by-product approach, addressed by Section 255, and criticized by TIA. This report highlights a number of misunderstandings between interpretation and actual meaning of the guidelines.


  7. Access Board. (2001). Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act (29 U.S.C. 794(d)). (1998). Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.access-board.gov/about/Rehab%20Act%20Amend-508.htm

    Requires federal departments and agencies to provide accessibility, when developing, procuring, maintaining, or using electronic and information technology that is equally accessible to Federal employees and the public, with and without disabilities, where appropriate. Alternative means of access should be provided where necessary. This act requires the development and incorporation of standards for the above mentioned. The act requires that non-compliance be documented and explained. These regulations do not apply to national security systems. Technical assistance will be available for agencies implementing actions related to these requirements. Evaluations will be done of each agency, and compliance reports will be submitted to the President.


  8. Access Board. (n.d.). Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Standards. Retrieved September 3, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.access-board.gov/sec508/508standards.htm

    This web site provides the preamble and text of the electronic and information technology accessibility standards developed by the Access Board in support of Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act. The standards were published in the Federal Register on December 21, 2000. The technical standards cover software applications and operating systems; Web-based intranet and internet information and applications; telecommunications products; video and multimedia products; self contained, closed products; and desktop and portable computers.


  9. Access Board. (n.d.). Market monitoring report. Retrieved September 18, 2003, from the World Wide Web: http://www.access-board.gov/telecomm/marketrep/

    This web site provides a baseline for telecommunications equipment and how well this equipment addresses the Access Board guidelines. It identifies barriers to accessibility and features that may help overcome these barriers.


  10. Adobe Systems, Inc. (1999). Optimizing Adobe PDF files for accessibility. Retrieved January 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/pdfs/pdfaccess.pdf

    This document describes ways in which PDF files can be created so that they are more accessible to individuals using screen readers. It describes the problems that screen readers have with PDF files (e.g., text in tables often cannot be read in the proper order, files are often difficult to navigate) and presents solutions for making files created with the currently available software more accessible. Two solutions involve converting PDF files into readable form. One solution is accomplished via access.adobe.com, in which files in PDF format can be converted into HTML. The other solution involves the use of a plug-in, called Acrobat Access™, which converts PDF files into plain text. The document also offers design guidelines that would make converted files easier to read and navigate, and briefly describes planned attempts to increase the accessibility of Adobe PDF files.


  11. American Foundation for the Blind. (2000). AFB Presents 2000 Access Awards. Retrieved January 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.afb.org/afbnews_2000accessawards_summer.asp

    This web site lists the four recipients of the AFB 2000 Access Awards. The recipients were Dancing Dots, IBM Special Needs Systems, L’Occitane, and Pitney Bowes, Inc. Each of these organizations were given the award for the innovative ways in which they have made their products more accessible to individuals who are blind or visually impaired.


  12. ATIA. (n.d.). AT-IT Compatibility Guidelines, Version 1.05. Retrieved September 18, 2003, from the World Wide Web: http://www.atia.org/AT_Compatibility_Guidelines_v1.05.pdf

    This document contains guidelines generated by assistive technology developers for the purpose of assisting E&IT vendors with making their devices compatible with both existing and anticipated AT devices. This also discusses some of the benefits of designing for compatibility.


  13. Austin, M., Chen, P., Doering, J., Mayers, H.A., Oleson, L., Turner, S., & Vinson, N. (1998). Universal access and universal service: Lowering the barriers to entry into cyberspace. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University. Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/ltac98/access.html

    The authors provide a history of universal access, and emphasize the comparability of internet communications with traditional communications. Issues relevant to telephone and postal systems are relevant to more modern forms of communication technologies. In 1896, the post office instituted free rural delivery, greatly increasing access for individuals with impairments. This provides an early example of making communications universally accessible. TRS and TTY facilitate use of telephone service by people with hearing impairments. Closed captioning increases accessibility of television (audio and video access). A boon to internet accessibility is that "a new data representation can always be introduced on the digital foundation." (p. 6) A problem, however, is the speed at which internet technology is evolving. The World Wide Web Consortium is one organization that is working to develop standards for Web pages. The Web Accessibility Initiative is a universal access project devoted to technology development, development of tools, guidelines for use of the technology, education of content creators, and research and advanced development. Accessibility application programming interfaces (APIs) may be one way to more readily meet accessibility needs. The authors review legislation related to universal access. They also discuss universal service, the economic accessibility of technology.


  14. Baker, L. (1999). Therapeutic riding and the visually impaired. [Printed in NARHA Strides, 5(1) and 5(2). Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.narha.org/features/tr_visimp.pdf

    The author discusses the concepts of blindness and low vision. Sighted guide technique is used to facilitate horseback riding for people with visual impairments. The component subsystems of vision, accommodation, oculomotor, and convergence, are discussed. Additional characteristics of the visual system are described. It is important for the therapists to have as much information as possible about each individual so that they can develop the best programs possible.


  15. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewoods Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

    The classic work in the field of social psychology on the basis of observational learning. Bandura presents a unified theoretical framework for analyzing human thought and behavior. This book discusses bases by which people learn from the observation and modeling of others, a critical factor in designing effective training systems. This concise overview of the framework of social learning theory presents the supporting theoretical and experimental research of circa 1977. As conceived by social learning theory, learning occurs by response consequences or by modeling (observing others performing desired overt actions). The complex mechanisms of learning are separately discussed for both the antecedent determinates that predispose responding (e.g., physiological and emotional responsiveness, cognitive expectancy learning), as well as the consequent determinates that are the outcomes of responding (e.g., external reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement). Bandura acknowledges that human behavior cannot be fully explained by these mechanisms alone and postulates the cognitive processes (internal not directly observable) such as directed attention to certain external observable events that must be considered to fully account for observational learning. He argues that the symbolism representing the information of our world is internally manipulated, affected by experience and thus one can comprehend events and generate new knowledge about them.


  16. Barker, D. (2003). Microsoft research spawns a new era in speech technology: simpler, faster, and easier speech application development. PC AI Magazine, 16 (6) , 18-27. Retrieved June 26, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pcai.com/Paid/Issues/PCAI-Online-Issues/16.6_OL/New_Folder/TLH702/16.6_PA/PCAI-16.6-Paid-pg.18-Art1.htm

    This article discusses the recent historical evolution of speech technology, particularly with respect to a researcher by the name of Huang, who has made incredible strides in this field. The focus is on Kokanee, which is the codename for a major research and development effort at Microsoft. The primary goal of Kokanee is to research, develop and deliver the Microsoft.Net Speech Platform. Through improved speech recognition quality, served in part by the addition of semantic interpretation of speech, speech technology is on track to surpass existing capabilities significantly in the next few years.


  17. Becker, D. (1999). Some dedicated people are helping the disabled participate in the computer revolution. TechWeek. Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.techweek.com/articles/5-17-99/access.htm

    This article provides a review of individuals and companies who are making efforts to increase the accessibility of computers and the Internet, which will subsequently increase job prospects for people with disabilities. Emacspeak is similar to a screen reader, but it interprets the information and provides it in a much more understandable fashion. Java Accessibility API goes a step further by incorporating accessibility features into the software platform rather than offering them as an add-on. OCR translates print matter into text on the computer that can be read by software.


  18. Bergman, E. (1995). Towards accessible human-computer interaction. Nielsen, J. (ed.), Advances in Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 5. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.sun.com/access/developers/updt.HCI.advance.html

    This chapter provides an overview of the HCI issues of computer accessibility. The range of user capabilities must be considered for any design. They demonstrate that each of us at some time has an impairment that may prevent us from performing at a our maximum, but which might be overcome with alternative technological applications. A typical problem is that software engineers (and other designers) design with their own experiences in mind, significantly reducing the likelihood of accommodating a range of users. Features designed for one population may interfere with use by another population. This is an incredible challenge in the HCI world. The authors review some physical disabilities and discuss related assistive technologies. They also provide a table of design guidelines.


  19. Boose, J. (1985). A knowledge acquisition program for expert systems based on personal construct psychology. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 23 , 495-525.

    One of the major challenges of building expert systems is retrieving problem-solving information from a human expert. Standard procedures include a long series of incremental interviews, building and test cycles, typically over 6 to 24 months. This article proposes an alternative method based on George Kelly’s personal construct psychology, in which knowledge is elicited from information sources, and placed into an information base. These techniques are also applicable in eliciting knowledge for establishing the boundaries of any domain of knowledge defined by a set of anchored constructs appropriate for various forms of needs assessment or mission analysis. Expert knowledge is gathered using the Expertise Transfer System (ETS), an Interlisp-D-based tool which interviews an expert, analyzes the information and produces production rule knowledge bases for several expert system tools, such as KS-300 TM (an extended version of EMYCIN) and OPS5, used for rapid prototyping and testing for necessity and sufficiency. Individual knowledge bases are combined into knowledge networks and further tested, then delivery systems tailored, and on-the-job case records are kept in order to continually improve the system. ETS can significantly shorten the knowledge engineering process; months of interviewing can be condensed into a few hours. The ETS system is described and discussed in detail, including system limitations. Among the limitations is that ETS, like Kelly’s grid methodology, is best suited for analysis of class problems, such as debugging, diagnosis, interpretation and classification, where solutions can be enumerated ahead of time. Many useful dimensions generated from this class would be how are product A and B alike and different from C or how are manufacturer A and B alike and different from C. The author’s position is that it cannot readily handle synthesis class problems, such as design and planning, or those requiring a combination of the two, such as control, monitoring, prediction or repair. Again, by forming the proper comparison such as how is design team A like team B and different from C may be a very useful construct elicitation. ETS may also be able to handle the analysis components or synthesis class problems. In addition, ETS elicits traits and relationships, but not much about how or when the information is used in the problem-solving process.


  20. Boyce, S. (1999). Spoken natural language dialogue systems: User interface issues for the future. In D. Gardner-Bonneau (Ed.), Human factors and voice interactive systems (pp. 37-61). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    This chapter summarizes the research efforts at AT&T to develop more natural interactive voice response (IVR) systems. The primary conclusions from this research are that 1) contrary to previous findings, users preferred an automated system that referred to itself as “I”, 2) the formality of the IVR did not make a difference in user satisfaction, and 3) users provide more appropriate responses to an automated system if they are aware it is automated. General guidelines for developing the initial greeting, request confirmations, repeat requests, conversation turn taking, and human intervention in such systems are presented and discussed.


  21. Bradley, J. (1998). Human-computer interaction and the growing role of social context. ASIS Bulletin, American Society for Information Science. Retrieved January 25, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Feb-98/Bradley.html

    "While ease of use still plays a central role, factors such as compatibility with an individual's work style, impact on social and organizational norms, overall usefulness and relative advantage all need to be considered when evaluating an information technology (IT) product."


  22. Brodin, J., Hellström, G., Lindström, J., Martin, M., Pereira, L. M., & Roe, P. (COST219). (1999, August). New ways of using video telephony. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/videotelephony.htm

    This guidebook describes the users, usability requirements, design guidelines, and design standards relevant to video telephony. Specifically, the guidebook describes the several applications of video communication for people of varying disabilities, including three types of hearing loss, vision impairments, and cognitive impairments. Usability requirements discussed in the guidebook cover the compatibility between auditory and visual outputs of the device, the resolution of the display image, and the dynamic visual processing capability of the device (particularly as it relates to sign language). In addition, design guidelines for the use of video telephony for distance education and telecare services are presented. General design requirements regarding transmission rates and terminal and environmental ergonomics are provided, as well as various standards for the technology.


  23. Brook, D. (1997, December 6). Haptic interfaces in virtual reality. Retrieved January 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.hpcc.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~dtcb98r/vrhap/vrhap.htm

    This web site describes virtual reality and the haptic interfaces that make immersion in virtual environments deeper. The interfaces described vary in technology, effectiveness, and purpose for which they are best suited. The author presents the challenges to simulating tactile sensations, such as representing shape or hardness. Simulating friction and texture are very important in order to correctly simulate the tactile properties of objects. The author also describes applications for haptic interfaces, including making graphical representations of data “visible” to people with vision impairments by representing the properties of graphs (e.g., a line or distribution) in 3-dimensional, tactile ways.


  24. Bussemakers, M. P., & de Haan, A. (2000). When it sounds like a duck and it looks like a dog…Auditory icons vs. earcons in multimedia environments. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Auditory Display. Retrieved October 7, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.icad.org/websiteV2.0/Conferences/ICAD2000/PDFs/Bussemakers.pdf

    Auditory icons (known as real-life sounds) and earcons (abstract musical sounds) can be combined with visual ../images in multimedia environments. Auditory icons can convey complex messages in a single sound, making them more quickly conveyed than speech; however, they can be annoying. Earcons require learning, but they can be effective if applied appropriately. Several experiments have demonstrated that redundant information in a different modality slows reaction time. In this experiment, subjects were to respond yes or no as to whether a sound corresponded to a picture. Results indicated faster reaction times when auditory icons were present; earcons generally resulted in slower reaction times.


  25. Christenson, M. A.. (n.d.). Roadblocks to incorporating universal design. Proceedings, Designing for the 21st Century II: An International Conference on Universal Design. Boston: Adaptive Environments Center.

    Universal design needs to be considered early in the (building) construction process. To accomplish this, however, individuals need to be open to the idea of the possibility of needing various features that may not be important at the time of construction. This article focuses on resort housing, and the incorporation of universal design principles. One unit, purchased before constructed, was designed with extensive universal design elements, as dictated by the buyers. These elements were not incorporated into all units, however. Surveys were done to determine why things were and were not included, but the article, unfortunately, does not provide the results of these surveys.


  26. Clark, R. (2000). Universal design and regulation - A zero-sum game. Proceedings, Designing for the 21st Century II: An International Conference on Universal Design. Boston: Adaptive Environments Center.

    The belief that education and regulation could bring about significant change in the realm of universal design failed to account for the barriers created by regulation. Regulation is goal-oriented, and as a result, does not usually facilitate resolution of the core problem. Regulations do not solve social problems, and they feed resentment. More importantly, regulations will never allow us to achieve universality, and are rarely applied universally.


  27. Clarkson, P. J., & Keates, S. (2000). I-design project (inclusive design for the whole population). Proceedings, Designing for the 21st Century II: An International Conference on Universal Design. Boston: Adaptive Environments Center.

    Presents a model of inclusive design, with particular concern for the ever growing elderly population, and the need to accommodate individuals of varying abilities. The Inclusive Design Cube was developed to help increase awareness of different population needs, particularly for marketing groups who tend to target the able-bodied. It represents the various populations as well as their motion, sensory, and cognitive capabilities.


  28. Connell, B. R., Jones, M., Mace, R. Mueller, J., Mullick, A., Ostroff, E., Sanford, J., Steinfeld, E., Story, M., & Vanderheiden, G. (1997). Raleigh, NC: NC State University, The Center for Universal Design. Retrieved January 2, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.design.ncsu.edu:8120/cud/univ_design/principles/udprinciples.htm

    The principles include equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use. Guidelines associated with each principle are provided.


  29. Conyer, M. (1995). User and usability testing: How should it be undertaken? Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 11 (2), 38-51. Retrieved January 25, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet11/conyer.html

    This article describes the advantages and limitations of several methods of usability testing as a guide for choosing the most appropriate method for a particular purpose. The methods assessed were heuristic evaluation, pluralistic walkthroughs, formal usability inspections, empirical methods, cognitive walkthroughs, and formal design analysis. The primary dimensions along which different methods were compared were cost, efficiency, relatedness to the actual situation of use, amount of information provided for system improvements, and scope of experimental tasks.


  30. COST219. Disabilities and their identified barriers. Retrieved, December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/COSB228.HTML

    This web site provides links to lists indicating the amount of difficulty individuals with varying disabilities have with different types of equipment-related tasks. The disabilities for which there are lists are: vision, hearing, speech, intellect, mobility, coordination and strength, and height. These lists provide a general overview of how the characteristics of equipment might be barriers to access if not modified for people that have particular disabilities.


  31. COST219. Potential alleviations of identified barriers. Retrieved, December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/cosb229.HTML

    This web site presents a set of general guidelines for alleviating the barriers that technology equipment often places on people with disabilities. It lists several types of equipment-related tasks and how modifying it in general ways could make it accessible to people with various disabilities. The disabilities included are: vision, hearing, speech, intellect, mobility, coordination and strength, and height.


  32. Davied, D. J., Fisher, J. E., Arnold, M., & Johnsen, D. (1999). Usage profiles of users of interactive communication technology: An empirical investigation into the significance of selected individual attributes. Retrieved January 25, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/law/st_org/iptf/commentary/content/1999060510.html

    Communication technologies are so prominent in our lives these days that they provide a great means of studying the influence of technology on our lives. Despite the widespread availability and relative ease of use, however, social inequalities exist with respect to access to communication technologies. We need to have a better understanding of how these technologies are used in the home. While diffusion research is quite popular today, one criticism is that some researchers using the theory fail to distinguish between trial use and adoption of technology. The authors of this article developed a survey of technology adoption and usage. They asked about technologies still in the process of diffusion. Dependent measures were ownership and usage. Independent measures were occupational prestige, income, education, and age. Social class and income were found to be significant factors.


  33. Donnelly, B. F. (2000). Universal design and regulation - A good business strategy. Proceedings, Designing for the 21st Century II: An International Conference on Universal Design. Boston: Adaptive Environments Center.

    The author discusses the development of his company, Lifespan Furnishings, LLC, which manufactures products that are built with Universal Design in mind. The company developed out of a project funded by a National Endowment for the Arts Universal Design Grant. The author made extensive use of focus group sessions, and found his approach to be very effective. He is interested in products that have a traditional appearance, quality construction, comfort, and which facilitate Activities of Daily Living for those who may have difficulties.


  34. Durlach, N. I., & Mavor, A. S. (Eds.). (1995). Haptic interfaces. Virtual reality: Scientific and technological challenges (pp.161-187). Washington, D. C. National Academy Press.

    "Haptic interfaces are devices that enable manual interaction with virtual environments (VEs) or teleoperated remote systems." (p. 161) They include keyboards, mice, and trackballs, as well as gloves, exoskeletons, and force feedback joysticks. Touch can be used to both sense and manipulate the environment, unlike vision and audition. The hand has 22 degrees of freedom, and an extensive nerve system. Sensory information from the hand can be either tactile or kinesthetic. The physiology of limb position and motion is discussed, as well as the perception of contact. Haptic interfaces consist of free motion, contact involving unbalanced resultant forces, and contact involving self-equilibrating forces. Complexity depends on whether objects are manipulated directly or with a tool. A review of hardware and software technology is provided. Much work needs to be done to make haptic interfaces comfortable, to determine appropriate methods of stimulation, and to effectively evaluate the interfaces.


  35. Edwards, A. D. N. (1998). Progress in sign language recognition. In I. Wachsmuth & M. Fröhlich (Eds.), Gesture and sign language in human-computer interaction, Proceedings of the International Gesture Workshop, September, 1997, Bielefeld, Germany (pp. 13-21). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

    This chapter presents an overview of the current state of sign language recognition by computers. The author states that while recognition of particular basic signs is improving, at least two major areas have not yet been addressed in the literature. These areas are facial expressions and sign language grammar. These areas must be addressed in order to improve the as yet inadequate recognition of sign language by computers.


  36. EITAAC Report. (June 9, 1999). Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.cot.org/dreport.htm

    The Electronic and Information Technology Access Advisory Committee (EITAAC) developed out of a directive to involve a number of agencies in the development of the Section 508 standards. It consists of 26 organizations. The report outlines minimally acceptable standards and hopes that voluntary implementation of more stringent design, production, and procurement will take place. There are both generic and technology specific standards. Generic standards encompass accessibility of operation and information, compatibility with peripheral devices often used by people with disabilities, and documentation and services associated with electronic and information technology. Technology specific standards address keyboards, software, web-based information and applications, telecommunications, multimedia, information transaction machines, PDAs, and cabling.


  37. Electronic and information technology accessibility standards. (2000). [Published in the Federal Register ]. Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.access-board.gov/sec508/508standards.htm

    This document provides the final rule for the accessibility standards associated with Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998. In addition, it provides comments and responses for each paragraph of the ruling, which in some cases helped to shape the wording of the final rule. Estimated costs and benefits of the final rule are provided. The Act provides definitions of terms specific to the understanding of Section 508. Regulations have to do with software applications and operating systems, web-based intranet and internet information and applications, telecommunications products, video and multimedia products, self contained/closed products, desktop and portable computers, and documentation and support.


  38. Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Standards: Economic Assessment. (2000). Washington, D.C.: EOP Foundation.

    “The standards are intended to improve accessibility of electronic and information technology used by the Federal government. The standards will benefit Federal employees with disabilities, as well as members of the public with disabilities who seek to use Federal electronic and information technology to access information and services…. There is an exemption for national security systems. Failure of a Federal agency to comply with the standards when procuring electronic and information technology may result in an administrative complaint or a civil action seeking to enforce compliance with the standards.” (p. 1) The report describes three issues that contributed to the development of these standards. It is estimated that the Federal government spends $12.4 billion on technology affected by the standards defined in Section 508, about 33% of the overall expenditures. Retrofitting of existing technologies is not required under this Act. The increased access created by this Act “…reduces barriers to employment in the Federal government for persons with disabilities, reduces the probability that Federal workers with disabilities will be underemployed, and increases the productivity of Federal work teams.” (p. 4) Benefits can be evaluated through wage gap analysis and team based productivity analysis. In many cases, the standards focus on the compatibility with existing and future assistive technology devices. A section of the report discusses the history associated with the development of these regulations. The final standards are summarized in this document, as well as baseline technologies associated with some of the standards. Disability statistics are provided, as well as a discussion of direct and opportunity costs. A final chapter discusses estimated benefits of the standards.


  39. Engelen, J., Evenepoel, F., Bormans, G., et al. (COST219). (1999, October). Producing web pages that everyone can access. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/webdesign.htm

    This guidebook first summarizes the usability issues that people with vision, hearing, motor, and cognitive limitations experience. The authors note that vision impairments create the most difficulty for navigating web sites, but that this can be avoided. The design of web pages is often not compatible with the assistive technology that people with low or no vision use, but with a small effort at a very low cost they can be. The authors list several types of assistive technology for the blind, as well as types of programming languages that are currently used (or will be in the near future) for creating web pages. The authors note that by increasing compatibility, web developers can increase the customer base of their employers as well as provide access to information that would otherwise be unavailable to blind individuals.

    The guidebook provides examples of web pages that have been designed using either wording or text formats that are incompatible with assistive technology and lists suggestions for how the pages could be modified. The authors note how modifications made to text format can also make web pages more accessible to people with other disabilities by improving the organization of information and the text descriptions of audio material.

    The guidebook presents a few general guidelines for designing web pages, which involve primarily improving the compatibility between text format and assistive devices for the blind. Additionally, references for further research and more detailed guidelines are presented.


  40. Ericsson, K.A. and Simon, H.A. (1984). Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press

    A common practice during usability tests of products is to have users verbalize their intentions and thoughts and use these verbal reports as a basis for modifying design prototypes. However, verbal reports have historically been treated as useful exploratory methods to gain an understanding of underlying psychological processes but as suspect when verifying the internal workings of human behavior. Ericsson and Simon argue that by properly defining the requirements and conditions of verbal report these doubts about the usefulness of verbal data can be overcome. They introduce the problem by distinguishing between uncontrolled approaches to verbal reporting and the situations and practices where verbal reports can be validated. The two major distinctions are the time of verbalization, which is important in determining from what memory the information is likely to be drawn (long term or short term memory). Second, is the nature of the verbal report in terms of information processing occurring before making the report. The basic argument is that the concurrent verbal reports by either “talking aloud” or “thinking aloud” concurrent with the task being performed or retrospective reports, immediately reported after completing a task, are two forms of verbal report that are the closest reflection to the underlying cognitive processes. Equally important in the consideration of this as a formal method is that a protocol, which in essence is a coding scheme, must be developed and be consistently applied to the collected verbal data. In the remainder of this book, a systematic review of the areas of concern lead up to a discussion of the recommended practices for conducting and analyzing verbal reports are presented. The systematic review of areas of concern include effects of verbalization (on report accuracy), completeness of reports, inferences from verbal data and a model-based approach to protocol analysis. The final chapter contains a series of concrete examples for conducting and analyzing “thinking aloud” (TA) verbalizations.


  41. European Commission. (1998). Design for all and ICT business practice: Addressing the barriers. Examples of best practice (EC Ref. Number 98.70.022). Telematics Applications Programme: “Design-for-All” for an Inclusive Information Society, Brussels.

    This report is based on interviews with individuals in the Information and Communication Technology industries, primarily in the U.K., Germany, and the Netherlands. Overall, it was discovered that these firms have little awareness of the concept of Design for All. They were, however, found to be amenable to incorporation of the philosophy. Barriers to Design for All include the role of end users in the design process, the structure of the firm, perceptions of older people and people with disabilities, the role of these same populations within the design process, other priorities in the design process, the availability or awareness of material on accessibility issues, awareness of Design for All principles, and the nature of Design for All. The authors provide strategies used by firms to overcome these barriers. Design for All cannot only benefit the end user, but can also make sound economic sense. A number of examples of good design practice are provided.


  42. Evans, D. G., MacKenzie, H. R., & Przirembel, C. (1996). Twenty key elements of a product realization process. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.prosci.com/prp1.htm

    This article lists and describes twenty elements that are essential in the best practice of the product realization process. The elements include social, technological, ethical, economic, and creative aspects of the process through which commercial products are conceived, designed, tested, and produced. Additionally, the article lists several best practices falling into five categories: knowledge of the product realization process, PRP team skills, design skills, analysis and testing skills, and manufacturing skills.


  43. Federal Communications Commission: Chief, Enforcement Bureau; Chief, Consumer Information Bureau; and Chief, Common Carrier Bureau. (2000, September 22). Reminder to manufacturers and providers of voice mail and interactive menu products and services of their accessibility obligations under new part 7 of the Commission’s rules. Washington DC. Retrieved January 4, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Enforcement/Public_Notices/2000/da002162.doc

    This document notes that voicemail and interactive menus are frequently inaccessible to people of various disabilities, and that this is in violation of federal law. Specifically, these telecommunications products cannot be used by people who use text telephones (TTY) and are extremely difficult to use by people who are slowed by blindness or mobility impairments. These problems are worsened by the fact that many interactive menus do not have an option that allows contact with a human operator. The document concludes with a warning that failure to comply with federal law will result in financial penalty.


  44. Feurzeig, Porter & Goldberg. (n.d.). Position papers on selected population groups regarding every-citizen interfaces in the nation's information infrastructure. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://stills.nap.edu/html/screen/14.html

    Feurzeig discusses the need to increase access to computers and the internet for the underprivileged (low-income families, educationally disadvantaged students, illiterate adults). Computer-based speech recognition is one tool that can be used to facilitate learning to read. Porter surveyed a low-income user community, and found the following characteristics: Non-English speaking, limited educational background, limited literacy, limited access to computers. The problem of computer literacy should address simple predictable interfaces, rapid/incremental/reversible control, and training. The problem of language literacy should address direct manipulation, audio support, and culturally appropriate presentation. The problem of limited computer resources should address presentation on low-bandwidth devices, users without fixed Internet addresses, and long-running services. Goldberg reviews access for people with disabilities. While access issues are often attributable to any population, individuals with disabilities have a particular problem with input and output of data. Closed captioning and second audio programming have been a great leap forward, but they are quite limited.


  45. Feworn, A., Bodner, R., & Chignell, M. H. (2000). Auditory WWW search tools. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Auditory Display. Retrieved October 7, 2003 from the World Wide Web.

    Visually impaired and mobile individuals can benefit from auditory web browsers. Screen reader technology is extremely limited, and this auditory search tool provides one technology to facilitate this gap in accessibility. A number of guidelines and recommendations have been developed by organizations such as W3C. This auditory search engine runs the query, and organizes the results categorically before restructuring them in such a way that they can be read on existing auditory web browsers. The arrow and enter keys are used to control playback of the content. A user study was completed, and the results were generally favorable.


  46. Fichman, R. G., & Kemerer, C. F. (1995). The illusory diffusion of innovation: An examination of assimilation gaps. Retrieved January 25, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pitt.edu/~ckemerer/illusory.htm

    Some individuals use acquisition of (enthusiasm for) technology concepts to define the time of adoption of a product; others use deployment of the technology. This can result in something called an assimilation gap, which can skew judgment of successful technology adoption. An assimilation gap is defined as "…the difference between the pattern of cumulative acquisitions and cumulative deployments of an innovation across a population of potential adopters." There are many consequences of adopting technology that then never gets widely deployed; these consequences can be summarized as limited availability. Software is deemed especially prone to the assimilation gap. The authors did a study to compare (measure) assimilation gaps for three software process innovations (RDBs, 4GLs, and CASE). This research demonstrates that it is possible to identify whether products will be successfully adopted.


  47. Fisk, A. D., & Rogers, W. A. (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of human factors and the older adult. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    This book devotes several chapters characterizing the aging population in terms of changes in learning and memory, sensory and perceptual functioning, movement control and speed of behavior, anthropometry and biomechanics, and language and communication. The book also presents several chapters on the application of human factors toward addressing age related changes in performance, such as the development of assistive technology in the home and the assessment of older worker capabilities and limitations. The book provides a useful resource for assessing the range of functioning that humans go through as they age and understanding the implications of these changes for designing and evaluating commercial products.


  48. Folds, D. J. (1998). Use of design reference scenarios in a user-centered design process (AIAA-98-1039). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

    Design reference scenarios can be used to coordinate information obtained from mission, function, and task analyses. They consist of a timeline and a narrative of the system in operation. This paper provides recommendations and lessons learned for use of design reference scenarios. The author recommends a set of design reference scenarios (7-10) for any system, rather than just one. These scenarios are particularly helpful in generating simulations. A team consisting of subject matter experts, designers, and individuals with technical knowledge should develop scenarios. The process for developing these scenarios is described for aircraft system design.


  49. Folds, D. J. (2000). Three crucial components of an aircrew-centered design process AIAA-2000-1061). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

    Analysis, design, and evaluation, applied in an iterative fashion, are essential to the design process. Analysis involves identifying requirements for the system. Design involves developing techniques for information transmission; factors to consider in selecting information representation methods are provided. Evaluation is used to validate the design output. Analysis consists of mission, function, and task analysis; task analysis provides the basis for design and evaluation. Design is concerned with how elements of the system are going to be represented and organized. Evaluation can be either formative or summative, as described in this paper.


  50. Francik, E. (1996). Telephone interfaces: Universal design filters. Retrieved January 18, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.trace.wisc.edu/docs/taacmtg_aug96/pbfilter.htm

    This is a design guide intended for early use in the development of telephone products and services. It identifies problems that may be encountered by people with disabilities.


  51. Fritz, J. P., Way, T. P., & Barner, K. E. Haptic representation of scientific data for visually impaired or blind persons. Retrieved January 16, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.rit.edu/~easi/easisem/haptic.html

    This web site describes the TACTile Image Creation System (TACTICS) that is being developed at the University of Delaware. Briefly, TACTICS reproduces visual image information in tactile form by first making the edges of objects in the information salient then processing the image in terms of segments. The processed ../images are ultimately “printed” using microcapsule paper. The web site also describes how haptic interfaces (e.g., PHANToM from SensAble Devices) can make graphical information accessible to people with low or no vision. While there is still a great deal of work to do, tactile representation of data proves to be a promising research direction.


  52. Garson, G. D. (2000). Focus Group Research. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/focusgroups.htm

    This web site comes from a course in quantitative methods in public administration. It defines what a focus group is, and specifies how this needs assessment technique is conducted. In addition it specifies when a focus group should not be used. A focus group should not be used when quantitative data is sought, particularly for multivariate analyses. This is because statistical estimates based on the small sample size present at a focus group cannot generalize reliably. Further, the sample size is too small to provide the stability required for assessing the relative effects of multiple variables.


  53. Gerth, J. (1991, July). Knowledge Acquisition. Briefing presented at Technical Coordination Meeting #2 for the Analog Circuit Analysis and Partitioning System (ACAPS), Atlanta, GA.

    A method of graphical user interface simulation was described that involved verbal report of mental processes, and observation of problem solving activities during the simulation. The overall goal was to identify the knowledge and methods utilized by test engineers that were necessary to develop an understanding of units under test and to develop an approach to testing with automated test equipment. The interface simulation was conducted in the customers’ multi-media production studio. In the interface simulation, two test engineers worked as a team to understand the circuit. The rules of interaction designated one engineer as the information source, who had an understanding of the circuit to be tested and the other engineer was designated as the information seeker who was in the process of developing an understanding of the circuit. The limits on the dialog restricted the information seeker to ask specific questions that could be answered without requiring knowledge of the prior conversation and to permit the information source to add graphic notations, such as circles, arrows and other notations during the question and answer period of problem solving. To further restrict the conversation the two engineers were placed in separate rooms and able to see the circuit annotations on a video display and talk to each other with an intercom system. The information seeker was also trained to “think out loud” to permit observers of the simulation to assess the knowledge and use of methods to gain an understanding of the circuit operation. The dialogue between the information resource and the information seeker was analyzed. Dialogue classes for the information seeker included information requests, contingency changes (interruptions) of ongoing analysis (e.g., “Okay, I understand; now let’s look at X.”), requests for restatement or clarification, and responses to requests (including confirmations). Dialogue classes for the information resource included information requests, scope limiting requests (e.g., “Could you be more specific?”), and responses to requests. Many of the requests and responses were affected by indefinite references to “schematic” or “Over here, there’s a tank circuit.” Or “What’s the output at this opamp?” Indefinite references of this kind required additional dialogue to confirm references by pointing at the references, providing additional description, or using other scope-limiting dialogue. This approach identified the knowledge and methods used by the test engineer, the grammar and vocabulary required to ask/answer questions, and identified potential user interface considerations/issues (such as user aiding, visual decluttering, highlighting, annotation layers, and process tracking of the problem solving).


  54. Gerth, J., Kelly, M., West, P., Sobhi, N. (n.d.). Comparing advanced traffic management centers with similar operation control systems. Paper for Federal Highway Administration.

    This paper documents the human factors lessons learned and questions not resolved by the design teams from facilities with automated traffic management centers (TMCs), and from facilities that perform similar or analogous information processing and control functions. Using a data induction technique called the Repertory Grid Technique, three subject matter experts (SMEs) generated constructs that they used to rate each of six different command centers. First, each SME generated constructs relevant to features or qualities of the sites. These were combined and the unique aggregate was validated against an independent measure of the breadth of coverage of constructs concerning TMCs. In addition to comparability analysis, these constructs were also invaluable in designing the interview protocol for the follow-up site visits.


  55. Gill, J. (2000, November). Approaches for influencing the design of new telecommunication systems and services. Retrieved January 4, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.tiresias.org/reports/approach.htm

    Though geared toward a European audience, this web site touches on some important pointers for making accessible design a priority in situations where influential people are unaware of its necessity. More specifically, the basic questions asked are: (1) Who needs to be influenced? (2) What is the message? (3) When do they need it? (4) Who is best placed to do the influencing? (5) How to deliver the message?

    In brief summary, the author concludes that legislators, system developers, and service providers are the most important people to be influenced. The message to be delivered is telecommunications technology and services must be accessible to as many people as is reasonably possible. Accessibility and reasonability are defined by standards and guidelines regarding design and performance evaluation. The message should be delivered as soon as possible in the design process, if not beforehand, via detailed design guidelines. The people best able to deliver the message should be well versed in design and disability and thus capable of communicating the messages of both in the language of either. Finally, there were several ways listed for delivering the message, the effectiveness of each determined by who is to receive the message. The author concludes that a standardized approach with detailed guidelines is absolutely necessary for improving the incorporation of accessibility into the design of telecommunications products.


  56. Gill, J., Roe, P., & Martin, M. (COST219). Pay phones with immediate public access. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/payphones.htm

    This guidebook presents general design guidelines for pay phones in order to make them more accessible to people of varying abilities. Like the others, this guidebook cites the business and quality of life implications of universal design, or “design for all.” In addition, this guidebook emphasizes that limitations in ability can happen to anyone at any time, either due to physical disability or circumstance.
    The particular areas of focus in this guidebook are providing adequate signals for locating the phone, designing the general operating environment (e.g., illumination), designing the phone unit itself (e.g., display, payment, handset), and presenting instructions for usage. The capabilities of individuals with physical disabilities are emphasized with the assumption that individuals without physical disabilities would also benefit from many of the design implications in many diverse situations.
    General guidelines for design are presented for each area of focus. Additional relevant publications are listed, as well as relevant design standards for such devices.


  57. Gjöderum, J. (Ed.). (NFTH/COST219). Text telephony for deaf, hearing impaired, deaf-blind, and speech impaired people. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/Texttelephony.htm

    This guidebook, intended to illuminate the need for and benefits of text telephony (TT), describes the population of TT users and the usability goals of TT. The benefit of TT is that it allows immediate communication, real-time conversations among individuals that cannot speak or hear and between them and others without impairment. The guidebook describes how text telephony works. It also describes how proposed alternatives to TT (e.g., faxing, email) are not adequate for meeting the needs that TT meets. Finally, it describes briefly how the use of TT should be accommodated by other telecommunications technology (e.g., pay phones including a jack into which text telephones can be plugged).

  58. Gjoderum, J., Hypponen, H., Nordby, K., Ruud, S., Ekberg, J., & Martin, M. (COST219). Guideline—Booklet on Mobile Phones Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/cost219/mobiletelephone.htm

    This brief set of guidelines is intended to illuminate various aspects of mobile phone (GSM) design that can be modified in order to increase accessibility to users of varying capabilities. The guidelines are prefaced by justifications for using them in the design process, including business and quality of life implications. A common theme in the literature supporting the use of universal design guidelines is the expansion of the consumer base (or target market) and its obvious implication for increasing profits. As the authors note, however, making mobile phones accessible to the elderly and people with disabilities also has implications for the freedom and independence with which these people can conduct their everyday activities.
    The authors provide a definition of the Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) and their design recommendations are meant to be applied to future phones using this communication system. The authors describe the parts and accessories comprising a mobile phone unit, how elderly users and people with disabilities benefit from the features of a mobile phone unit, and general design issues that must be considered when developing such a unit. Finally, specific design guidelines are presented, organized according to particular features of the device (i.e., general design, keypad, phone operation, ingoing and outgoing sound specifications, display, battery and recharging, SIM card, and instructions). The guideline booklet concludes with design issues that require more research before specific recommendations can be made and relevant European publications and standards for the design of mobile phone devices.


  59. Goode, E. (January 2, 2001). Researcher challenges a host of psychological studies The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/02/science/02ERRO.html?printpage=yes

    This article describes a researcher's caution in using rating scales in psychological studies. Rating scales often ask people to provide a level of some adjective describing their feelings about an issue (e.g., how hungry are you?). This is a subjective inquiry, however, and people's interpretations of the meaning of these adjectives cannot be equated, but often have been in research throughout the years.


  60. Greenberg, S. (2000, March 7). Prototyping for design and evaluation Retrieved January 18, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~saul/681/1998/prototyping/survey.html

    This web site describes the various methods involved in low- and medium-fidelity prototyping techniques. Prototyping is defined as the method through which users are involved in the design process through testing and evaluation of product models. Low-fidelity prototyping does not represent the functionality of the to-be-designed system but provides an overview of system features. It involves pencil and paper sketches, storyboards, and PICTIVE techniques, and the system developers typically guide the direction of evaluation. Medium-fidelity prototyping partially represents the functionality of the to-be-designed system. It involves such techniques as computer-based simulation, Wizard of Oz, slide shows, and video prototyping. Here, the user is more involved in guiding the direction of evaluation. The choice to use low-, medium-, or high-fidelity prototypes depends on the phase and budget of the design process.


  61. Grudin, J. (1993). Obstacles to participatory design in large product development organizations. In D. Schuler & A. Namioka (Eds.), Participatory design: Principles and practices (pp. 99-119). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    This chapter describes the organizational barriers to the participatory design of commercial products and some trends in industry that may lead to the removal of some of the barriers. The specific barriers appear to come from organizational structure, and not from individuals with bad attitudes. While there are several barriers, one such barrier is the separation of the product definition and development processes. Another one is the traditional, intentional separation of developers and users, which perpetuates ignorance of user needs. Additionally, the user environment for computer hardware and software has traditionally been very similar to the development environment but this has changed dramatically in the past three decades. It is this change that the author posits will slowly start the slow train of organizational change in motion. The author also advises that practitioners become familiar with organizational barriers in order to communicate and effectively integrate end users into the design process.


  62. Hackos, J. T., & Redish, J. C. (1998). User and task analysis for interface design New York: John Wiley & Sons.

    The authors emphasize that good design is impossible if designers do not understand the users. A usable interface not only allows users to effectively accomplish their goals, but also gives the perception of usability. User and task analysis is most reliable when done while observing users perform their tasks. User characteristics that must be considered include how people use a product, how physical differences may affect use of the design, and how motivated people are to change how they interact with a product. They authors provide guidance for identifying who the users actually are, understanding task analysis, and understanding the important environmental factors. They discuss the importance of site visits, and how to go about doing them. The final chapters address how to analyze the data that is collected through site visits, and how to integrate the results into interface design.


  63. Hartley, C. (personal communication [email], October 20, 1999)

    In response to a request for advice on setting up a human factors process in a medical device manufacturing company, Craig Hartley of Sun Microsystems outlined 17 actions to proactively generate the adoption of human factors principles by software and hardware product teams at Sun Microsystems. He based his recommendations on his 25 years of experience in R & D groups and 6 years with Sun Microsystems in which he has established the human factors engineering function. In his opinion, the organization must offer human factors services free of charge to the design team or that appear to be free, paid out of the overhead or paid at division or higher levels to encourage its use by design teams. He emphasizes tailoring methods to the time and resources available, co-locating human factors experts with project design teams to permit quick access, and being consistently responsive to requests for input by the time it is needed. Raising the corporate awareness of human factors is an incremental process beginning with "out-of-box" evaluations at time of product release to raise awareness and start the thinking process to plan ahead for earlier evaluations in the design cycle. He recommends “selling” human factors services within the organization by involving project engineers as subjects in usability studies, encouraging "drop-ins" to the usability labs, and creating a laboratory that is multi-purpose (i.e., evaluate mockups, conduct focus groups and competitive product assessments) to establish human factors as willing to tackle a variety of problems. Creating an incentive system tied to human factors gives tangible rewards for good design (i.e., bonuses tied to number of service calls logged during a given period). Require a "HF dashboard" on every regular project review that lists status for usability problems discovered. These recommendations illustrate that organizational behavior at Sun Microsystems was changed through a long-term campaign of effective and timely design problem solving service to design teams.


  64. Hoffman, R. R., Crandall, B., Shadbolt, N. (1998). Use of the Critical Decision Method to Elicit Expert Knowledge: A Case Study in the Methodology of Cognitive Task Analysis. Human Factors, 40 (2), 254-276.

    The Critical Decision Method (CDM) is an approach to cognitive task analysis involving multiple-pass event retrospection guided by probe questions. The session is organized around an account of a specific incident from the participant’s own experience. Three information-gathering sweeps are used: time line verification with decision point identification; progressive deepening into a comprehensive, detailed, and contextually rich account; and “what-if” queries. A full CDM procedure takes about 2 hours. The CDM has been used in diverse domains and applications, most often for applications including system development and instructional design. This article explores some methodological issues – reliability, validity, efficiency, and utility – in research utilizing CDM, as well as several strategic issues involving cognitive task analysis methods in general.


  65. Hofmann, F. (1995, November 3). Gesture recognition with SensorGloves Retrieved January 16, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://pdv.cs.tu-berlin.de/forschung/IFP_engl.html

    This article provides an overview of the research going on at the Technical University of Berlin toward developing a device for recognizing human gestures. Specifically, the functions of the existing SensorGloves device are described, as well as the challenges facing future development and future applications. Future applications include the development of a gesture-to-text or gesture-to-image telephone for hearing impaired individuals. This application first requires that certain research challenges be overcome, such as improving the precision and speed with which data received from the moving hands are gathered and analyzed. Other challenges include building a gesture database and creating graphical representations of gesture data.


  66. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. (2000). Accessibility of Electronic Commerce and New Service and Information Technologies for Older Australians and People with a Disability: Report of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission on a reference from the Attorney-General, 31 March 2000 Retrieved January 26, 2001 from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.independentliving.org/docs4/hreo2000.html

    The Commission’s task in this reference was to examine issues affecting older Australians and people with a disability to electronic commerce and new service and information technologies. They provided the Attorney-General with an impact report of general areas where access was currently limited and concluded that digital technologies properly designed could provide access in these areas. They further concluded that disability accessibility issues are more accurately perceived in many cases as universal access issues, such that appropriate design for access by people with disabilities will improve accessibility and usability for many older people and through the community more generally. They also made recommendations for action including improvement of existing standards for on-line and automated services, encouraging universal design practices, and increased governmental role in laws and support for universal design.


  67. IBM. Identifying reasons for producing accessible content and products Retrieved, December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/access_ibm/reasons.html

    This web site describes reasons for producing accessible content and products for consumers with disabilities. It is written from the perspective of the commercial designer involved in the production of products used globally. This is helpful in that the content of this web site is directly applicable to addressing the concerns of commercial designers who will benefit from the development of the ITTATC program.

    Briefly, the reasons identified for producing accessible content and products are: Everyone needs accessibility; Providing accessibility increases the customer base; Worldwide regulations and standards require accessibility; The benefits of accessible technology apply to everyone.

    In summary, the commercial advantage of developing accessible content and products is that it would make products available (and thus marketable) to the hundreds of millions of individuals worldwide who have some kind of disability. In the U.S., older adults (approximately 36% of which have some sort of functional limitation) compose the fastest growing age group and these individuals do not want to lose access to the technology around which their lives have been shaped. Finally, many design implementations made for individuals with disabilities also aid individuals without disabilities.


    Accessible products should be developed so that (1) individuals with disabilities have access as well as individuals without disabilities, (2) the customer base can be maximized, (3) worldwide regulations and standards are met (6 major regulations are identified), and (4) everyone can benefit from accessible design. People with disabilities make up the largest minority group in the United States, and their needs are quite often overlooked.


  68. IBM. Interacting with people that have disabilities Retrieved, December 15, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www-3.ibm.com/able/hr/interact.html

    With regards to interacting with individuals with disabilities, this IBM web site makes the following (summarized) recommendations: Make your communications and interaction accessible to the individual with a disability; Allow the individual with a disability control over the assistance you give them; Make accommodations for individuals with disabilities feel inclusive, rather than disruptive, and encourage requests for help if necessary; Allow individuals with disabilities extra time to prepare for meetings, and make the content of meeting materials accessible to whatever assistive technology the individual uses; Treat the individual’s assistive technology with care.


  69. IBM. (n.d.). Hardware accessibility Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/guidelines/hardware/accesshardware.html

    This web page provides a checklist for assessing hardware for accessibility. Detailed information on each checklist item is available through a link in the checklist entry. Evaluation items include issues related to controls and latches, keys and keyboards, drives and removable media, alternate external connections, displays, color and contrast, sounds, and documentation.


  70. IBM. (n.d.). Java accessibility Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/guidelines/java/accessjava.html

    This web page provides a checklist for assessing Java for accessibility. Detailed information on each checklist item is available through a link in the checklist entry. Evaluation items include issues related to Java accessibility API, keyboard access, object information, relationships and layouts, the display, sound and multimedia, and documentation.


  71. IBM. (n.d.). Principles for accessible software Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/access_ibm/principles.html

    This web page identifies three basic principles, including choice of input methods (including serial port support and mouseless operation), choice of output methods (including display, sound, and print), and consistency and flexibility.


  72. IBM. (n.d.). Software accessibility Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/guidelines/software/accesssoftware.html

    This web page provides a checklist for assessing software for accessibility. Detailed information on each checklist item is available through a link in the checklist entry. Evaluation items include issues related to keyboard access, object information, sounds, the display, timing, and documentation.


  73. IBM. (n.d.). Understanding disability issues when designing web sites Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/access_ibm/disability.html

    Web developers need to be aware of accessibility issues to accommodate individuals with visual, hearing, mobility, or cognitive/learning disabilities. Awareness and use of assistive technologies are the greatest means to minimize barriers to web access. Descriptions of some assistive technologies are included along with some design guidelines.


  74. IBM. (n.d.). Web accessibility Retrieved January 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.ibm.com/able/guidelines/web/accessweb.html

    This web page provides a checklist for assessing web sites for accessibility. Detailed information on each checklist item is available through a link in the checklist entry. Evaluation items include issues related to use of ../images, multimedia, scripts and plug-ins, forms, frames, tables and charts, hypertext links, and color and contrast.


  75. InClude. (1999, December). Handbook on Inclusive Design of Telematics Applications (Sections 1 through 3). Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stakes.fi/include/handbook.htm

    This handbook presents design challenges and checkpoints for telematics products within the context of industry goals and structure while maintaining usability and accessibility priorities, defined by the “Design for All” and Universal Design objectives, as the central basis for product design and marketing.
    The handbook begins by addressing common marketing and process challenges typically faced by efforts to establish and market inclusive designs. The author presents data suggesting that bases of the challenges are ill founded, and suggests a redefinition of target markets to include individuals of varying abilities and possible routes for reshaping the design process in order to more efficiently incorporate the needs of various end users.
    The author provides several checkpoints toward building accessibility into each phase of the design process, discussing justifications for each one within the context of industry needs and structure. These checkpoints are applied to each phase of the design process with the goal of maximizing inclusion.
    The third section of this handbook presents the seven Universal Design principles and design guidelines for specific telecommunications products as described by COST 219 bis.


  76. Independent Living. Report on a Priority Theme: Accessibility on the Internet. Retrieved January 24, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.independentliving.org/docs5/UN-Report-accessibility-on-the-internet.html

    This report is a result of the lessons learned in a project to launch an electronic “Gateway” for the Division of Social Policy and Development of the United Nations Secretariat. Policy statements, definitions of terms, recommended accessibility practices, and useful accessibility information sites were included from the United States, Canada, and Singapore. A consulting firm from British Columbia, Canada assisted in the development of the site.


  77. Internet Industry Association. IIA Warns SOGOC Disability Web Decision Puts Businesses on Notice. Retrieved January 24, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.independentliving.org/docs5/sydney-olympics-blind-accessibility-decision-press-release.html

    Legal actions were filed against the Sydney Olympics Games organizing committee, which upheld the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 requiring accessibility. A news release from the Internet Industry Association, Australia’s national body for the internet reported on the outcome of a disability discrimination complaint filed against the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games for not providing Braille copies of the information required to place orders for the Olympic Games tickets, for souvenir programs and not providing an accessible web site.


  78. Internet World. (2000, October 25). Macromedia enables creation of accessible web content. Retrieved January 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://www.macromedia.com/macromedia/proom/pr/2000/accessibility.html

    This article describes Macromedia’s efforts to make web content more accessible to people using screen reader and font enlargement methods to surf the net. Its efforts involve providing free downloads of Dreamweaver and Fireworks software extensions that enable web developers to evaluate their pages for accessibility. These extensions perform an analogous function as Bobby. In addition, the article briefly describes the planned improvements to the Dreamweaver and Fireworks software. One enhancement is a developer kit including accessible design guidelines and sample code. Another enhancement includes modifications to the Flash software that will allow accessibility to (by text readers) and modifiability (e.g., size) of text within Flash (SWF) files.


  79. ITAA. (n.d.). Information Technology Association of America IT Accessibility and Regulation Task Group. Retrieved September 26, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.itaa.org/software/sec508/

    This web page provides information about the latest governmental rulings on Section 508 and the ITAA’s responses to those rulings.


  80. ITIC (2001). Voluntary Product Accessibility Template. Retrieved September 19, 2003, from the World Wide Web: http://www.itic.org/policy/vpat.html

    This web page provides a template for corporations to use to document, for procurement officials, how well their products comply with the standards of Section 508.


  81. Jacob, R. J. K. (n.d.). Eye tracking in advanced interface design. Retrieved January 8, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.eecs.tufts.edu/~jacob/papers/barfield.html

    The author proposes eye tracking as a means to increasing user-computer bandwidth, particularly in virtual environments. Eye movements are a much more natural input mechanism than pushing a button or manipulating a joystick, thus they may also facilitate an increase in cognitive load. The physiology of eye movements is discussed, as are eye-tracking technologies, which generally measure line of gaze. One difficulty with eye tracking is to differentiate intentional from non-intentional movements. Steps involved in processing raw eye movement data include local calibration, fixation recognition, and re-assignment of off-target fixations. Applications of eye tracking include interaction techniques, object selection, continuous attribute display, moving an object, eye-controlled scrolling text, and menu commands. Interfaces using eye-tracking technologies can be characterized as using implicit commands in simultaneous, parallel interactions.


  82. KADO. User needs methods. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.kado.co.uk/unmeths.htm

    This web site describes the user needs analysis methods available to and used by the KADO consulting company. Such methods include workshops and focus groups, panel studies, brainstorming sessions, questionnaires, observation, interviews, ratings diaries, attribution analysis, projective techniques, verbal protocols and content analysis, and user trials. These methods fall into three categories: methods that involve multiple groups of individuals, a single group of individuals, or single individuals. Additionally, statistical methods for analyzing user need data are listed and briefly described. They are: factor analysis, cluster analysis, and scaling analysis.


  83. Karat, J., Lai, J., Danis, C., & Wolf, C. (1999). Speech user interface evolution. In D. Gardner-Bonneau (Ed.), Human factors and voice interactive systems (pp. 1-35). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    This chapter describes the design process and challenges faced by a team of developers working on various types of voice interactive systems. Specifically, the design of the four IBM systems Personal Dictation, Storywriter, MedSpeak, and Conversation Machine was discussed. The primary challenges faced involved reducing word recognition errors, lag between spoken text (or corrections) and displayed text (or corrections), system confusion of dictation vs. editing commands, difficulty with which text could be selected for editing, and user training. Resolutions to these challenges are described, and lessons learned in improving the design of each system are discussed.


  84. Kaye, H. S. (1997). Disability watch: The status of people with disabilities in the United States. San Francisco: Disability Rights Advocates

    Because of physical and stereotypical barriers, yet despite the number of equal rights laws that have been passed, people with disabilities continue to be discriminated against with respect to employment, education, housing, access to public accommodations, and social integration. The introduction in this report provides an excellent overview of how society currently fails the population with disabilities. Noncompliance with accessibility standards and regulations persists because ignorance regarding reasonable accommodation (including lack of appropriate education for architects) is extremely high, social integration is slow due to poor enforcement and lax implementation of policies and laws related to disabilities, and persistent prejudice. The authors provide extensive demographics on the population of people with disabilities, including employment and transportation statistics, and statistics on social integration. A number of myths and facts are provided as well. An extensive section on barriers to independence is included.


  85. Kaye, H. S. (July, 2000). Disability and the digital divide. (Disability Statistics Abstract 22). Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.

    Computer ownership and internet use is much greater for individuals without disabilities (statistics are provided). There are also comparisons made for educational attainment, family income, and race/ethnicity (and disability status of household members).


  86. Kaye, H. S. (March, 2000). Computer and internet use among people with disabilities (Disability Statistics Report 13). Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.

    This report indicates that while computers and the internet have made information much more accessible to individuals with disabilities, the gap in usage is just as great as that based on race. The Current Population Survey, while not directly addressing disability issues, can be used to extract information about computer and internet use for households with and without work disabilities. Analyses were done for computer ownership and internet use (1) by disability status and age group, (2) by disability status, (3) by disability and employment status, (4) by disability status, gender, employment status, educational attainment, and family income, and (5) by race, ethnicity, and disability status. Statistics were also reported identifying reasons why people use the internet, with email being the most common. Educational efforts need to be made to broadcast the benefits that assistive technologies can provide, and cost reduction strategies must be implemented to make these technologies affordable.


  87. Kaye, H. S. (May, 1998). Is the status of people with disabilities improving? (Disability Statistics Abstract Number 21). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.

    Despite the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990, the participation of individuals with disabilities in mainstream America is still extremely limited. There has been little change in employment figures, there continues to be a gap in income for individuals with and without disabilities, and while many physical (e.g., stairs) and communication (e.g., inability to read menus or forms) barriers have been removed, individuals with disabilities are still limited in social participation. Much still needs to be done to improve the lives of people with disabilities.


  88. Kelley, J. F., Spraragen, S. L., Jones, L., Greene, S. L., & Boies, S. (1996). Extending user-centered methods beyond interface design to functional definition. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Retrieved January 18, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.musicman.net/itshfs69.html

    The authors have developed a tool for achieving functional definition of a design. They use four phases of application development, namely, discovery, proof of concept, pilot iteration, and application rollout. This process ensures that both functional and usability needs of the users are met.


  89. Kelly, M. J. (1999). Principles and methods of user-centered design In Preliminary Human Factors Guidelines for Traffic Management Centers (FHWA-JPO-99-042). Mclean, VA: Federal Highway Administration.

    This chapter outlines a process approach to user-centered design consisting of the following steps: conduct a mission analysis, prepare a design concept, conduct functional analysis and allocation procedures, conduct an operator task analysis, identify sources of human operator error, identify human performance constraints, design jobs, design the work environment, design and specify workstations, design and specify controls and displays, and design and specify user interfaces. Tools and techniques are provided for each of these steps. Principles of test and evaluation are also discussed.


  90. Kelly, M.J. (1975). Studies in interactive communication: Limited vocabulary natural language dialogue. (ONR Contract No. N00014-75-C-0131). Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University, Department of Psychology.

    This study is an illustration of an experimental method that can be used to establish a limited vocabulary for an interactive dialogue between a person and a machine. Such a dialog can be defined for the exchange of information between any class of technology, such as hand-held telecommunications devices and a person. The method consists of two-person teams of subjects cooperatively solving real-world problems who communicate with each other only through a computer-controlled typewriter system that places limits on the vocabulary. Vocabulary size was varied from 300 to 500 words or as a baseline condition, as unlimited. The analysis approach evaluated the effectiveness of each vocabulary size in problem solving. The results indicated that it is possible to develop a vocabulary of limited size that is still efficient to use in interactive communication.


  91. Kennard, W. E. (March 8, 1998). Remarks by Chairman William E. Kennard regarding disability access to telecom equipment. Washington, D.C.

    Kennard discusses the need for equal opportunity. The needs of people are the same, regardless of the method they must use to accomplish their task. Section 255 of the Telecommunications Act mandates access of telecommunications equipment and services for people with disabilities. Many devices used by a large number of people today were invented with a specific disability in mind; the telephone is one of these devices. Thus, the population with disabilities is only part of a larger population of people who will benefit from regulations regarding accessibility. Kennard encourages consumer and disability policy organizations to provide significant input into design needs. One of his goals is to expand access to the FCC through consumer feedback.


  92. King & Thomas. (n.d.). Position papers on key processes regarding every-citizen interfaces in the nation's information infrastructure. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://stills.nap.edu/html/screen/15.html

    King proposes the need to move beyond the traditional focus of the interface as an individual concern, and to elaborate on the interface as a collaborative tool as used at the "group organization, sectoral, institutional, social, and cultural levels". (p. 3) Thomas' position focuses on audio access to the national information infrastructure, including providing universality, privacy, security, usability, empowerment, responsibility, translatability, and ubiquity. Audio access through telephone lines would facilitate access for low-income individuals, as well as provide a number of other benefits to other populations. This would require technological improvements in the following areas: speech recognition, speech synthesis, picture and video understanding, natural language processing, user interface design, system integration, speaker verification, media translation, adaptive recognition, and intelligent searching.


  93. King, T. W. (1999). Assistive technology: Essential human factors. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    This book describes the critical human factors considerations in the design of and training with assistive technology (AT). Specifically addressed is the effect of ignoring human factors in AT design and training on AT effectiveness and use.

    This book touches on the particular concerns faced by individuals with disabilities and the families, therapists, educators, and employers who support them. These concerns are typically those of which designers of inaccessible commercial products are unaware or have ignored. A primary concern addressed in King’s book that does not appear in the literature of universal design is called cosmesis (“the appearance of an item, and how it relates cosmetically to the user”). King notes that this design characteristic is fundamental in determining whether assistive technology is appealing to consumer and will be used.

    Another concern addressed in this book is the design and materials used to compose switches and controls for technology used by people with disabilities. For commercial designers who are not familiar with the ways in which individuals with disabilities must compensate for their functional limitations, this book is particularly useful for describing matter-of-factly the design issues that must be considered in universal design.

    Finally, King’s book is useful for understanding what sort of AT the user brings to occupational and leisure situations involving commercial technology. It broadly characterizes the demographics of the population using various types of AT. It is presumed that most commercial designers are unaware of the specific characteristics of this population.


  94. Ko, D. (1999). Information requirements analysis and multiple knowledge elicitation techniques: Experience with the pricing scenario system. Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.

    This presentation describes the use of the scenario technique as a supplement to existing needs assessment techniques (e.g., structured interviews, focus groups, etc.). The author discusses a model of knowledge acquisition and transfer, which presents different ways in which tacit and explicit knowledge are acquired, and uses it to explain how the scenario technique is useful for eliciting tacit knowledge. The author does not suggest that the scenario technique replace other needs assessment techniques, but argues that it is an extremely valuable supplement to these techniques. The other needs assessment technique are purported to be ideal for eliciting explicit knowledge where the scenario technique may be inadequate.


  95. Kolodner, E. L., Nathan, V., & Piersol, C. V. (2000). Interdisciplinary collaborative teams: A strategy for infusing universal design into professional curricula. Proceedings, Designing for the 21st Century II: An International Conference on Universal Design. Boston: Adaptive Environments Center.

    The author encourages interdisciplinary training and exposure for any individual who may be involved in environmental design. For example, designers (interior, industrial, fashion, and graphic) and occupational therapists, while completely different career fields, both concern themselves with human/environment interaction. Thus, they can pool their perspectives to facilitate a more generally accessible design of any environment.


  96. Kramer, G., Walker, B., Bonebright, T., Cook, P., Flowers, J., Miner, N., Neuhoff, J., Bargar, R., Barrass, S., Berger, J., Evreinov, G., Fitch, W. T., Grohn, M., Handel, S., Kaper, H., Levkowitz, H., Lodha, S., Shinn-Cunningham, B., Simoni, M., & Tipei, S. (1997). Sonification report: Status of the field and research agenda.

    “Sonification is the use of nonspeech audio to convey information.” (p.1) This paper is intended to provide an understanding of this interdisciplinary field, an appreciation for the potential of sonification, and ideas for support of further research. The field is composed of psychological research in perception and cognition, development of sonification tools for research and application, and sonification design and application. The authors provide a proposed research agenda, as well as an overview of the three above-mentioned components of the field. The authors provide a list of suggested research topics that, if undertaken, should help in the formation of design principles.


  97. Krueger, M. W., & Gilden, D. (1997). KnowWhere: An audio/spatial interface for blind people. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Auditory Display. Retrieved October 7, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.icad.org/websiteV2.0/Conferences/ICAD97/Kruger.PDF

    KnowWhere uses light table and video technology to analyze the location of a user’s fingertip to determine where he/she is pointing or touching. KnowWhere then provides auditory feedback to the user. A VIDEODESK serves as a direct pointing device, and users can even enlarge an area to more thoroughly explore its features. Representational sounds are used where possible, such as ocean waves or city traffic. They may take longer to recognize, however, and the system must account for this perceptual lag. While a sound is played, the system ignores other features that are touched so that the user can associate his/her position with the feedback. Five subjects tested the system to study maps. They all successfully used the system and readily learned the information provided.


  98. Lamancusa, J. S. (2000, November 16). Rapid Prototyping Primer. Retrieved January 18, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.me.psu.edu/lamancusa/rapidpro/primer/chapter2.htm

    This web site briefly presents information on rapid prototyping. It defines rapid prototyping, describes the basic process and several rapid prototyping techniques, lists the current applications of rapid prototyping, and presents future developments that will advance the current state of the technology. Rapid prototyping refers to the relatively quick construction of physical models from CAD data, which are used in the design, evaluation, and manufacturing of automotive, aerospace, medical, and consumer products. The advantage of such models is that they allow 3-dimensional representation of products, which aids in design and evaluation. Future developments in rapid prototyping technology will improve the speed with which prototypes are constructed, improve the accuracy and surface finish of the constructed prototypes, broaden the range of materials that can be used in construction, and increase the size of the products that can be constructed.


  99. Law, C. M., & Vanderheiden, G. C. (1999). Tests for screening product designs prior to user testing by people with functional limitations. Presented at the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Conference.

    The authors propose inexpensive screening tests to apply to product design for accessibility evaluation. The screening tests are designed with a naïve test subject in mind. They are designed to impose functional limitations on individuals who may not actually have an impairment. Sensory screening tests include use without vision, use with low vision, use without the ability to hear, and use with reduced ability to hear. Physical screening tests include use with one hand, use with one finger, use with a mouthstick, use with a low manipulation capability, and use with a tremor/poor coordination. Cognitive screening tests include use without the ability to read and use with limited cognitive capability.


  100. Law, C. M., & Vanderheiden, G. C. (2000). Reducing sample sizes when user testing with people who have, and how are simulating disabilities - experiences with blindness and public information kiosks. Presented at the joint conference of the International Ergonomics Association and Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

    To reduce costs, it is desirable to minimize the number of subjects required for experimentation. As the probability of finding interface problems increases, the number of required test subjects decreases. Important questions must be considered, however, before determining the best number and mix of subjects. (1) "Do people who are simulating disability have the same likelihood of problem discovery as people with genuine disabilities?" (2) "Do people who have genuine disabilities find different types of problems?" (3) "Is it valid to have a subject pool that is a mix of people with genuine disabilities, and people simulating difficulty or disabilities, as a means of reducing subject recruitment costs?" (p. 1) Fifteen blind and 15 sighted subjects were used in an experiment involving a touchscreen based public information kiosk. The results found very small differences between the groups. Further research is necessary to answer the above questions.


  101. Law, C. M., Barnicle, K., & Vanderheiden, G. C. (n.d.). Usability testing of people with disabilities: Where do you begin? Proceedings, Designing for the 21st Century II: An International Conference on Universal Design. Boston: Adaptive Environments Center.

    Little in the literature addresses techniques for user testing of people with disabilities. There is growing interest in this area, and the following have been identified as a means to facilitate this user testing: consider obvious problems, such as what would happen if the user were blind, evaluate the facilities for obstacles which may hinder people with various disabilities (vision, impairment, use of a wheelchair), test the process of using the designed item from the perspective of various disability conditions, and considering different severities of various disabilities.


  102. Lee, S. H. (1999). Usability testing for developing effective interactive multimedia software: Concepts, dimensions, and procedures. Educational Technology & Society 2 (2). Retrieved January 25, 2001, from the World Wide Web (link updated September 23, 2003): http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_2_99/sung_heum_lee.html

    This article presents the need and describes general procedures for usability testing for multimedia products. Evaluation and data collection methods are described, along with general guidelines for conducting usability testing.


  103. Leibe, B., Minnen, D., Weeks, J., & Starner, T. (2001). Integration of Wireless Gesture Tracking, Object Tracking, and 3D Reconstruction in the Perceptive Workbench International Conference on Computer Vision Systems, July, 2001, Vancouver, Canada (pp. 73-92). Retrieved October 7, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.vision.ethz.ch/leibe/papers/leibe-perceptive-icvs01.pdf

    “The Perceptive Workbench endeavors to create a spontaneous andunimpeded interface between the physical and virtual worlds. Its vision-basedmethods for interaction constitute an alternative to wired input devices and tetheredtracking. Objects are recognized and tracked when placed on the displaysurface. By using multiple infrared light sources, the object’s 3D shape can becaptured and inserted into the virtual interface. This ability permits spontaneitysince either preloaded objects or those objects selected at run-time by the usercan become physical icons. Integrated into the same vision-based interface is theability to identify 3D hand position, pointing direction, and sweeping arm gestures.Such gestures can enhance selection, manipulation, and navigation tasks.In previous publications, the Perceptive Workbench has demonstrated its utilityfor a variety of applications, including augmented reality gaming and terrain navigation.This paper will focus on the implementation and performance aspectsand will introduce recent enhancements to the system.”


  104. Legarce. (Forthcoming, 2002). Beyond ADA: A guide to universal design. John Wiley & Sons.


  105. Leplâtre, G., & Brewster, S. A. (2000). Designing non-speech sounds to support navigation to mobile phone menus. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Auditory Display. Retrieved October 7, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.icad.org/websiteV2.0/Conferences/ICAD2000/PDFs/Leplatre.pdf

    “This paper describes a framework for using non-speech audio to support navigation in menu-based interfaces such as mobile phone interfaces where the visual feedback is limited. (p.1) Previous research as demonstrated that people are capable of recalling a 25-node hierarchy of earcons. People improve at menu navigation through exploration, acquisition of display-based knowledge, and practice. Design principles incorporated into the study include: distinctiveness of main menu sounds, homogeneity of sonification, distinctiveness and gradation of each menu level, use of brief sounds, and distribution of sound weights. The experimenters found significant benefit for use of non-speech sounds. Users used fewer keypresses and completed tasks more successfully. Future research will address levels of sonification.


  106. Leung, Y. K., Smith, S., Parker, S., & Martin, R. (1997). Learning and retention of auditory warnings. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Auditory Display. Retrieved October 7, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.icad.org/websiteV2.0/Conferences/ICAD97/Leung.pdf

    Abstract sound warnings are much more difficult to learn and retain than speech warnings and auditory icons. Auditory warnings are prevalent in hospital and military aircraft environments. The disadvantage of speech warnings is that they can be easily masked by background speech. The experiment focused on the military aircraft environment. The auditory warnings dealt with eight possible events. Experimenters measured number of trials required to reach criterion performance and number of errors. Speech auditory warnings were most easy to learn, though the number of trials was not significantly different from that for icons. There was a significant difference for learning and retaining abstract sounds. Natural icon-event associations can enhance learning and retention.


  107. Linda, T. K., Corrigan, J.M., and Donaldson, M.S. (Eds.). (2000). To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

    A primary commitment of the ongoing effort to improve the quality of health care delivery systems is identifying and learning from errors. In order to enable this learning process, the primary requirement is to create an environment that encourages organizations to identify errors, evaluate causes and take appropriate actions to improve performance in the future. External reporting systems represent one mechanism to enhance our understanding of errors and the underlying factors that contribute to them. Although committing errors in the use of telecommunication devices is not usually associated with life threatening consequences (aside from 911 calling), errors in device usage can at a minimum, lead to decreased use of the product. Useful distinctions established for evaluating medical device errors are also potentially distinctions for other devices. Classifying errors committed in the use of a device during a standard procedure, such as dialing or looking up an information item can assist in the allocation of design resources to correct the root cause of the error. For example errors can be classified as preventable, random events, or lost opportunities (the user is required to repeat the failed operation over). The general approach to a systemic change is establishing a knowledgeable population of users who create sufficient pressure to make errors costly to the providers so they are compelled to take action to improve their products.


  108. Lumsden, J., Brewster, S.A., Crease, M. and Gray, P.D. (2002). Guidelines for audio-enhancement of graphical user interface widgets. Proceedings of British HCI, Vol II (pp. 6-9). London: BCS. Retrieved June 30, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~stephen/papers/HCI2002-lumsden.pdf

    The authors provide guidelines related to earcons – the production of sound, designing earcons, and combining simultaneous earcons. They provide a total of 21 guidelines related to earcons, preceded by a brief background and design goals.


  109. Lund, A. M., & Tschirgi, J. E. Designing for people: Integrating human factors into the product realization process. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.ameritech.com/corporate/testtown/library/articles/design.html

    This web site describes the role of human factors in the Product Realization Process. Specifically, an example of an iterative design process for dev